Chapter 10.1 : This session covers the following content: Definition of Critical Thinking: Depends on the context or discipline: Philosophy: Reflectively judging what to believe or do. (Facione, 2000) Psychology: Mental strategies and processes used to solve problems and make decisions. (Sternberg, 1986) Education: Emphasized in Bloom’s Taxonomy—especially the top three levels: analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. (Kennedy et al., 1991) Science: Self-disciplined, domain-specific thinking that follows the norms of the scientific method. (Paul, 1992) Involves internalizing the standards and values of the discipline. Cultural Studies: Calls for culturally sensitive approaches, like reconnecting with traditions (e.g., Buddhist critical thinking). Core Components of Critical Thinking: - Analyzing arguments and evidence - Interpreting and evaluating information - Making inferences (inductive/deductive reasoning) - Explaining and justifying conclusions - Monitoring and correcting one's own reasoning - Solving problems and making decisions Two Main Views of Critical Thinking: - Skill View: Focuses solely on cognitive skills (analysis, evaluation, inference, etc.) - Character View: Includes both skills and dispositions (traits like open-mindedness, curiosity, and intellectual humility)
Chapter 10.2 : This session covers the following content: Core Characteristics of Critical Thinking Skills: - Observation – Noticing details and patterns - Curiosity – Eagerness to learn or explore - Objectivity – Avoiding personal bias - Introspection – Reflecting on one's own thoughts and reasoning - Analytical Thinking – Breaking down complex problems - Identifying Biases – Recognizing prejudice in self or sources - Determining Relevance – Focusing on what matters most - Inference – Drawing conclusions from evidence - Compassion and Empathy – Understanding perspectives of others - Humility – Willingness to admit limitations or mistakes - Willingness to Challenge the Status Quo – Questioning norms and assumptions - Open-Mindedness – Considering multiple viewpoints - Awareness of Thinking Errors – Recognizing logical fallacies and cognitive biases - Creative Thinking – Generating new ideas or approaches - Effective Communication – Clearly expressing thoughts - Active Listening – Truly hearing and engaging with others Cultural Perspective on Critical Thinking: Many of these traits (e.g. independence, challenging authority, open debate) reflect Western cultural values. In Non-Western cultures, values like respect for authority, group harmony, and indirect communication may take precedence. This raises a key educational question: Do we respect and integrate students’ cultural backgrounds, or do we require them to adopt Western models of thinking to succeed academically? Implication: Educators should be culturally aware and responsive—recognizing that critical thinking may look different across cultures and shouldn't be taught as a one-size-fits-all skill.
Chapter 10.3 : This session covers the following content: Origins of Critical Thinking in the West: Socrates is widely credited as the father of Western Critical Thinking. He developed the Socratic Method—a process of deep, reflective questioning aimed at uncovering assumptions and testing the validity of knowledge. This method challenged: Authority Religious tradition Cultural norms Conventional wisdom Key Dispositions Modeled by Socrates: - Rational Thinking - Open-mindedness - Analytical Thinking - Self-confidence - Inquisitiveness - Questioning the Status Quo - Skepticism of Authority - Suspicion of Knowledge Claims Socrates taught students to think autonomously, which clashed with Greek societal norms that emphasized tradition and obedience. Cultural Backlash and Trial: Socrates was ultimately tried and executed for: - Denying the state-sanctioned gods - Corrupting the youth By encouraging independent, rational thought. Paradox of Socratic Rationalism: Despite being the model of rationality, Socrates credited his inner voice—his daimonion (a divine inner guide)—for steering his decisions. This non-rational influence contradicts the modern image of him as a pure rationalist. Raises a key tension: Socrates rejected mystical knowledge publicly but privately followed a spiritual intuition. Legacy and Influence on Science: Socrates’ legacy laid the foundation for Western critical thinking, influencing: - Philosophy - Science - Education Modern Science builds on this tradition but establishes strict boundaries—rejecting supernatural explanations in favor of Methodological Naturalism; rejecting also spiritual inner voices. All scientific inquiry must be testable, observable, and based on natural causes. “Although supernatural explanations may have merit, they are not part of science…” —Judge Jones, Kitzmiller v. Dover Key Tension Today: Socrates challenged the norms of his culture to establish new standards of thinking. But he did so by introducing new spiritual influences. Modern science, in contrast, defends its existing standards (e.g. Methodological Naturalism) to protect the integrity of inquiry; yet many new discoveries have been revealed in dreams.
Chapter 10.4 : This session covers the following content: Two Systems of Thinking (Metacognition): Type 1 Thinking – a. Intuitive/Automatic b. Fast, unconscious, experience-based c. High capacity, contextual, associative Examples: Gut reactions, pattern recognition Often used in day-to-day decisions Type 2 Thinking – a. Analytical/Deliberate b. Slow, conscious, rule-based c. Capacity-limited, abstract, logical Used for problem-solving, critical evaluation Required for reflective, rational thought (i.e., critical thinking) These systems often work together but independently can produce conflicting conclusions. Reading and Cognitive Modes: Sight Reading (visual, fast) aligns with Type 1 Phonetic Reading (auditory, rule-based) aligns with Type 2 Research shows that reading methods can reinforce a preferred mode of thinking. Western education emphasizes phonetic (auditory, analytic) methods, reflecting its deep roots in Type 2 processing and Western philosophy. Cultural Context of Critical Thinking: Western Critical Thinking is built on: - Rationalism - Questioning authority - Individual autonomy - Logical, structured analysis → These reflect Western cultural tendencies. To succeed in a Western education system, students are often expected to adopt not only the skills but also the cultural attitudes (e.g., assertiveness, skepticism, open to debate). Cultural Sensitivity in Teaching Critical Thinking: "When children start asking questions, there may be a feeling that they are becoming impolite and aggressive." — Dr. Win Aung (Burma) In some cultures (like many non-western traditions), values such as respect, harmony, and obedience may conflict with Western models of critical inquiry. Therefore, teaching critical thinking globally must be culturally sensitive, acknowledging: - Different traditions of thought (e.g., Buddhist critical thinking) - Cultural attitudes towards questioning and respect Core Insight: Critical Thinking is not just a set of skills—it’s a mindset shaped by culture. To truly teach it, educators must consider how culture shapes thinking, communication, and learning preferences.
Chapter 10.5: This sessions covers the following content: Type 1 and Type 2 thinking are two different ways the brain processes information. Type 1 is fast, automatic, and intuitive, while Type 2 is slower, more deliberate, and conscious. In 2011 researchers from Harvard University published a paper showing that people who have a tendency to rely on their intuition are more likely to believe in God. They also showed that encouraging people to think intuitively increased people's belief in God. In an article published in Science (2012), Will Gervais and Ara Norenzayan of the University of British Columbia found that encouraging people to think analytically reduced their tendency to believe in God. The Mythos and the Logos: Mythos and logos are two ancient Greek words that describe different ways of acquiring knowledge. Mythos is based on storytelling and folk knowledge in an open system, while logos is based on logic and rational analysis in a closed system. In Greece, there was a movement described as a move from mythos to logos, where mythos signifies the supernatural stories people tell, while logos signifies the rational, logical, and scientific stories they tell. it is a particularity of Western culture to observe the world from a dichotomy that separates taxonomically the idea of “nature” from the one of “culture”, as well as the notion of “natural” from the “supernatural”, the “sacred” from the “profane”, etc. Jean-François Bonnefon: Critical thinking is strongly linked to Type 2 thinking because it involves conscious, deliberate, and effortful processes that analyze information, evaluate arguments, and form well-reasoned judgments. Can Type 1 versus Type 2 Thinking: Be related to Mythos versus Logos? Be related to Left Brain/Right Brain? Be related to a Visual processor versus an Auditory processor? Be related to being a Sight Reader versus a Phonetic Reader? Be related to Non-Western versus Western Cultural Tendencies? Published research in the U.S. (2009) reports that student skills in critical thinking and analysis have declined, while their visual skills have improved. Socrates: His method of questioning all sources of knowledge led his students to question all authority, from the pantheon of gods to the local authorities. Critical Thinking and Deconstructivism Socrates: His method modeled the following dispositions: 1. Rational Thinking 2. Open-mindness 3. Analytical 5. Self-confidence 6. Inquisitiveness 7. Questioning the status-quo 8. Questioning of Authority 9. Suspicious of knowledge claims. Type 1 vs. Type 2 Thinking: Two Modes of Thought Type 1 Thinking Fast, automatic, intuitive, unconscious Experience-based, high capacity Linked to belief in God, myth, and narrative-based knowledge Type 2 Thinking Slow, deliberate, analytical, conscious Rule-based, logical, effortful Associated with critical thinking, rational analysis, and skepticism toward belief in God Studies show: Encouraging intuitive thinking (Type 1) increases belief in God (Harvard, 2011) Encouraging analytical thinking (Type 2) decreases belief in God (Science, 2012) Mythos vs. Logos: Two Ways of Knowing Mythos = storytelling, cultural traditions, knowledge passed on through experience Logos = logic, science, rational explanation, empirical inquiry, book learning of knowledge The Western tradition has shifted from Mythos to Logos—from sacred stories to secular science Connections Between Systems of Thinking and Culture/Education Type 1 vs. Type 2 Thinking may align with: Modern Challenges in Education: U.S. research (2009): Student critical thinking and analysis skills are declining; Visual processing skills are increasing Suggests a shift toward Type 1, image-based cognition in a digital age Socrates and Critical Thinking: The Deconstructive Model Socrates used Type 2-style reasoning to: - Question authority - Challenge religious beliefs - Deconstruct accepted knowledge His method developed key critical thinking dispositions: - Rational Thinking - Open-mindedness - Analytical reasoning - Inquisitiveness - Self-confidence - Questioning the status quo - Suspicion of knowledge claims Socrates pioneered a deconstructive approach that laid the groundwork for Western critical thinking, but it was deeply countercultural in its time. Core Insight: Critical thinking (Type 2) is not just a skill—it’s a cultural and cognitive disposition rooted in Western traditions, while many other cultures value mythos, harmony, and relational thinking (Type 1). To teach critical thinking globally and inclusively, we must recognize these cognitive and cultural differences.